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Tucked away on the banks of the Limpopo River in southern Africa, the ancient kingdom of Mapungubwe was once one of the most vibrant and prosperous indigenous civilizations between the 11th and 13th centuries. Challenging historical stereotypes of pre-colonial wilderness, archaeological discoveries at Mapungubwe have unveiled a distinctly stratified society, a maritime trade network stretching all the way to the Indian Ocean, and exquisite gold-leaf craftsmanship—epitomized by the legendary golden rhinoceros figurine. The reading passage Mapungubwe (Cambridge IELTS 21 – Test 2, Passage 2) transports readers back in time to explore the social structure, economy, and mysterious decline of this ancient stone kingdom.
Centering around the theme of Archaeology & Ancient Civilizations, this passage tests candidates through three task types: Matching Information, Multiple Choice (Two Choices), and Summary Completion. The detailed breakdown, full-text translation, and core academic vocabulary system below will help you tackle the test with absolute confidence and precision.
Reading Passage
Mapungubwe
Located in southern Africa just below the Limpopo River, the kingdom of Mapungubwe flourished between the 11th and 13th century CE.
[Paragraph A] Mapungubwe, which was one of the first states in southern Africa, was formed by Bantu-speaking peoples who were farmers. The area controlled by the rulers of Mapungubwe had at its heart a large sandstone plateau, which was easily defended due to its inaccessibility. As with other kingdoms in the region of southern Africa, cattle herding and other types of farming brought plenty of food and a surplus that could be traded for needed goods. Archaeology has revealed extensive layers of bones and manure, which indicate that from the 9th century CE there were large cattle herds, the traditional source of political power in southern African communities. The archaeological record for the 10th century shows a marked increase in the number of domesticated cattle in the area as well as cotton cultivation and weaving, as indicated by abundant finds of spindle whorls.
[Paragraph B] The total population of Mapungubwe at its peak in the mid-13th century was around 5,000 people. The chief or king of Mapungubwe was likely the wealthiest individual in the society, and would have owned more cattle and precious materials than anyone else. The king and his advisers dwelt in a stone enclosure composed of stone walls and housing built on the highest level of the community’s territory, a natural sandstone hill which is some 30 metres high and 100 metres in length. Occupation on the hill dates from the 11th century and the entire complex was surrounded by a wooden palisade*, as indicated by postholes made in the rock. The rest of the community lived in mud and thatch housing spread out below the hill, although there is one stone structure here. This settlement, known as Babandyanalo, covers around 5 hectares (12.3 acres) and predates the hilltop structures.
[Paragraph C] The kings of Mapungubwe were buried at the top of the hill site in a demarcated area away from the dwellings, while other members of the community were buried at the surrounding valley level. A wooden staircase connected the two levels, the sockets for the steps being clearly visible in the sandstone cliff face. There were some grander residences dotted around the outskirts of Babandyanalo, and these probably belonged to male relatives of the king. There are many other smaller but still impressive sites across the Mapungubwe plateau, which are located anywhere from 15 to 100 kilometres from the major hill site. Containing stone residences and walls, they likely belonged to local chiefs who acted as servants to the king.
[Paragraph E] Archaeological discoveries reveal that pottery was produced on a scale large enough to suggest the presence of professional potters, and is another indicator of the prosperity of Mapungubwe society. Archaeological finds include spherical vessels with short necks, beakers, and bowls, many of which have decorative stamps. There are also ceramic discs, and whistles. In addition, cattle, sheep, and goat figurines, and small figures of highly stylised humans with elongated bodies and short limbs have been found. The figures may have been used in ceremonies as offerings to ancestors, but their precise function is not known. Other discoveries include small jewellery items made from locally sourced copper.
[Paragraph F] Beautifully decorated artefacts made of gold have also been found at Mapungubwe. A type of decoration, found nowhere else except Great Zimbabwe, involved the crafting of gold into small rectangular sheets and carving geometrical patterns into it. These sheets were then used to cover wooden objects (which have not survived) using small tacks, also made of gold. One such object that has been discovered may have been a sceptre, while additional evidence of local gold-working is a rhinoceros figurine made from small hammered sheets, and thousands of small gold beads. These objects were all found at the royal burial site and date to c. 1150. They are the first known indicators that gold had an intrinsic value of its own (as opposed to that of a currency) in southern Africa.
[Paragraph G] The kingdom of Mapungubwe was already in decline by the late 13th century, probably because overpopulation placed too much stress on local resources, a situation that may have been brought to a crisis point by a series of droughts. Trade routes may also have shifted northwards. Certainly, the areas that now prospered were to the north, such as Great Zimbabwe.
* palisade: a strong wooden fence built for military defense.
Questions
Questions 14–19
Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A–G.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A–G, in boxes 14–19 on your answer sheet.
14. a mention of the uncertainty regarding the purpose of certain objects
15. the likelihood that a climatic factor increased the problems Mapungubwe faced
16. a mention of the location where members of the king’s family are thought to have lived
17. a reference to people who brought goods by ship
18. an estimate of the size to which the Mapungubwe community grew
19. a mention of agricultural produce being exchanged for other items
Questions 20 – 21
Choose TWO letters, A–E.
The archaeological record reveals information about gold and the kingdom of Mapungubwe. Which TWO pieces of information are mentioned by the writer?
A. Not everyone in Mapungubwe used gold as a form of payment.
B. Items of gold were placed close to where Mapungubwe kings were buried.
C. The most valuable item discovered in Mapungubwe was a sceptre made of gold.
D. The way gold was decorated in Mapungubwe was also practised in another kingdom.
E. Working with gold was a respected occupation in the Mapungubwe community.
Questions 22 – 26
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 22–26 on your answer sheet.
Archaeological discoveries
The Mapungubwe community’s 22. _______________ is indicated by the amount of professionally made pottery discovered at the site. Many of these objects, such as beakers and bowls, are highly decorated and have been marked with stamps. Other finds include round ceramic objects, 23. _______________ and figures of various animals, as well as models of people with stretched 24. _______________. It is possible that these had a role in ceremonies to honour 25. _______________. In addition, pieces of 26. _______________ made from a local metal have been found at the site.
Complete Reading Translation
[Paragraph A] Mapungubwe, one of the earliest states in southern Africa, was founded by Bantu-speaking farmers. The area controlled by Mapungubwe’s rulers centered on a large sandstone plateau, which was easily defensible due to its rugged and inaccessible terrain. Similar to other kingdoms in the southern African region, cattle herding and other forms of agriculture yielded abundant food supplies and surpluses that could be traded for necessary goods. Archaeology has revealed dense layers of bones and manure, demonstrating that large cattle herds—the traditional source of political power in southern African communities—existed here as early as the 9th century CE. Archaeological records from the 10th century reveal a sharp surge in domesticated livestock, alongside cotton cultivation and weaving, as evidenced by the wealth of spindle whorls recovered from the site.
[Paragraph B] At its peak in the mid-13th century, Mapungubwe boasted a total population of around 5,000. The chief or king of Mapungubwe was likely the wealthiest individual in society, owning more livestock and valuables than anyone else. The king and his advisors resided within a walled stone enclosure built on the highest tier of the community’s territory—a natural sandstone hill roughly 30 meters high and 100 meters long. Hilltop habitation dates back to the 11th century, and the entire complex was encircled by a wooden defensive palisade, as indicated by postholes drilled directly into the rock. The rest of the community lived in mud-and-thatch dwellings spread out below the hill, although a single stone structure was also located there. This settlement, known as Babandyanalo, covers approximately 5 hectares (12.3 acres) and predates the hilltop structures.
[Paragraph C] Mapungubwe’s kings were interred atop the hill in a demarcated, segregated area separate from the living quarters, whereas ordinary community members were buried down in the surrounding valley. A wooden staircase linked the two levels, with the anchor sockets for the steps still clearly visible along the sandstone cliff face. A number of grander residences were scattered around the outskirts of Babandyanalo, likely belonging to the king’s male relatives. Furthermore, numerous smaller yet still impressive sites dotted the Mapungubwe plateau, situated anywhere from 15 to 100 kilometers from the primary hill site. Featuring stone dwellings and walls, these settlements likely belonged to local chieftains who served as vassals to the king.
[Paragraph D] The Mapungubwe plateau preserves a remarkably high volume of carnivore remains and ivory fragments, suggesting that pelts from these large predators along with elephant tusks were stockpiled, presumably for trade with coastal regions accessible via the Limpopo River. The presence of glass beads, almost certainly of Indian origin, indicates active trade with coastal states that, in turn, traded with merchants arriving from India by sea. Mapungubwe also profited from locally sourced copper and the gold trade flowing from the kingdom of Great Zimbabwe (12th–15th centuries) to the north down to the coastal city of Kosala. These lucrative commercial ties likely spurred the centralization of political authority, enabling rulers to control and even monopolize these profitable interregional trade routes.
[Paragraph E] Archaeological finds reveal that pottery was produced on a scale large enough to point to the existence of professional potters, serving as yet another testament to Mapungubwe’s societal prosperity. Recovered artifacts include short-necked spherical vessels, beakers, and bowls, many embellished with decorative stamps. Ceramic discs and whistles have also been unearthed. Additionally, archaeologists discovered figurines of cattle, sheep, and goats, alongside small, highly stylized human figures with elongated torsos and short limbs. While these figures may have served ceremonial purposes as offerings to ancestors, their exact function remains unknown. Other discoveries include delicate jewelry crafted from locally mined copper.
[Paragraph F] Exquisitely decorated gold artifacts have also been unearthed at Mapungubwe. A distinctive decoration technique—found nowhere else except Great Zimbabwe—involved hammering gold into tiny rectangular sheets and engraving them with geometric patterns. These gold sheets were then pinned onto perishable wooden objects (which have not survived) using tiny gold tacks. One such discovered item may have been a scepter, while other evidence of local gold-working includes a small rhinoceros figurine crafted from hammered gold foil and thousands of miniature gold beads. All of these items were recovered from the royal burial site and date to approximately 1150. They represent the earliest known evidence in southern Africa that gold held an intrinsic value of its own, independent of monetary currency.
[Paragraph G] By the late 13th century, the kingdom of Mapungubwe was already in decline, likely driven by overpopulation that heavily strained local resources—a crisis potentially brought to a head by consecutive droughts. Trade routes may have also shifted northward. Indeed, the regions that subsequently flourished lay to the north, such as Great Zimbabwe.
Key Academic Vocabulary Glossary
| Vocabulary / Phrase | Part of Speech | Contextual Meaning |
| Sandstone plateau | Noun phrase | Cao nguyên sa thạch |
| Agricultural surplus | Noun phrase | Lượng nông sản thặng dư (dùng để trao đổi/buôn bán) |
| Spindle whorls | Noun phrase | Con quay se sợi (dấu tích của nghề dệt vải cổ) |
| Demarcated burial site | Noun phrase | Khu lăng mộ được phân ranh giới rõ ràng |
| Lucrative trade links | Noun phrase | Các tuyến giao thương sinh lợi cao / béo bở |
| Monopolise | Verb | Độc quyền, thâu tóm toàn bộ quyền kiểm soát |
| Elongated bodies | Noun phrase | Thân hình thon dài / kéo dài cách điệu |
| Intrinsic value | Noun phrase | Giá trị tự thân (giá trị nội tại quý giá của kim loại) |
Answer Key & Explanations for Mapungubwe
Questions 14–19: Matching Information
14. a mention of the uncertainty regarding the purpose of certain objects -> Answer: E
Text reference (Paragraph E): “The figures may have been used in ceremonies as offerings to ancestors, but their precise function is not known.”
Analysis: uncertainty aligns with precise function is not known, while purpose of certain objects refers to the intended use of the statues/figurines (the figures).
15. the likelihood that a climatic factor increased the problems Mapungubwe faced -> Answer: G
Text reference (Paragraph G): “…probably because overpopulation placed too much stress on local resources, a situation that may have been brought to a crisis point by a series of droughts.”
Analysis: A series of droughts represents a climatic factor, which pushed existing difficulties to a critical tipping point (brought to a crisis point -> increased the problems).
16. a mention of the location where members of the king’s family are thought to have lived -> Answer: C
Text reference (Paragraph C): “There were some grander residences dotted around the outskirts of Babandyanalo, and these probably belonged to male relatives of the king.”
Analysis: Male relatives of the king equates to members of the king’s family, with their residential location specified as the outskirts of Babandyanalo.
17. a reference to people who brought goods by ship -> Answer: D
Text reference (Paragraph D): “…with other states on the coast who, in turn, traded with merchants travelling from India by sea.”
Analysis: Merchants journeying across the ocean from India (merchants travelling from India by sea) directly correspond to people who brought goods by ship.
18. an estimate of the size to which the Mapungubwe community grew -> Answer: B
Text reference (Paragraph B): “The total population of Mapungubwe at its peak in the mid-13th century was around 5,000 people.”
Analysis: The population estimate of around 5,000 people at its zenith (at its peak) reflects the maximum scale achieved by the community.
19. a mention of agricultural produce being exchanged for other items -> Answer: A
Text reference (Paragraph A): “…cattle herding and other types of farming brought plenty of food and a surplus that could be traded for needed goods.”
Analysis: Food surpluses generated from farming and livestock (food and a surplus -> agricultural produce
Khai giảng Khóa học Hè cực HOT.
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